A Model for Improving Job Satisfaction Among Civil Servants in Indonesia
This research explores how organisational culture, transformational prosocial leadership, and human capital contribute to job satisfaction among civil servants working within local government institutions in Indonesia. Although global scholarship has extensively examined strategies to improve employee satisfaction, studies focusing specifically on the Indonesian public administration remain scarce. In response, the present research investigates the pathways through which transformational prosocial leadership exerts its effects, considering the mediating roles of organisational culture and human capital. Data were obtained from 544 civil servants, selected through a multi-stage cluster sampling technique across several regional and municipal government bodies. The proposed model was evaluated using partial least squares-based structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal that transformational prosocial leadership fosters improvements in organisational culture, strengthens human capital, and enhances job satisfaction. Furthermore, organisational culture is shown to have a significant influence on both human capital and satisfaction levels, with human capital itself serving as a meaningful contributor to job satisfaction. Importantly, the effectiveness of leadership is reinforced when embedded within a supportive cultural context and supported by robust human capital development. These results highlight the necessity of promoting transformational prosocial leadership in local governmental settings to better support civil servant satisfaction. Considering the limited geographic and demographic scope of the current sample, future studies are encouraged to incorporate more heterogeneous populations from across Indonesia. In sum, this research emphasises the essential contribution of leadership and institutional culture to nurturing job satisfaction among public sector employees in developing nations.
[1] Abu-Rumman, A. (2021). Transformational leadership and human capital within the disruptive business environment of academia. World Journal on Educational Technology: Current Issues, 13(2), 178-187. https://doi.org/10.18844/wjet.v13i2.5652
[2] Agazu, B. G., Kero, C. A., & Debela, K. L. (2025). Transformational leadership and firm performance: A systematic literature review. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 14(1), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-025-00476-x
[3] Aldhaheri, S. M., & Ahmad, S. Z. (2024). The influence of transformational leadership on organizational performance and knowledge management capability. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 73(9), 2830-2857. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-10-2022-0532
[4] Ali, Z. M., Harun, C. Z., Basri, H., & Ibrahim, H. (2021). Job satisfaction of Aceh education board based transformational leadership model. Multicultural Education, 7(3), 75-81. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4570410
[5] Almansour, Y. M. (2012). The mediating role of organizational justice components in the relationship between leadership styles and job satisfaction. Global Journal of Management and Business Research, 12(20), 1-8. https://journalofbusiness.org/index.php/GJMBR/article/view/865
[6] Alneyadi, B. A., Al-Shibami, A. H., Ameen, A., & Bhaumik, A. (2019). Effect of transformational leadership on human capital among public sector employees in Abu Dhabi. International Journal on Emerging Technologies, 10(1a), 16-22.
[7] Amin, H. (2024). Zakat wakalah system in Malaysia: An extension of innovation diffusion theory. The Bottom Line, ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/BL-02-2024-0020
[8] Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1990). The implications of transactional and transformational leadership for individual, team, and organizational development. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 4(1), 231-272.
[9] Bavik, A. (2016). Developing a new hospitality industry organizational culture scale. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 58, 44-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2016.07.005
[10] Biagioli, V., Prandi, C., Giuliani, L., Nyatanga, B., & Fida, R. (2016). Prosocial behaviour in palliative nurses: Psychometric evaluation of the prosociality scale. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 22(6), 292-298. https://doi.org/10.12968/ijpn.2016.22.6.292
[11] BPS. (2019). Statistik Indonesia 2019. Badan Pusat Statistik.
[12] Cabrita, M. do R. M. F., Silva, M. de L. R. da, Rodrigues, A. M. G., & Duenas, M. del P. M. (2017). Competitiveness and disclosure of intellectual capital: An empirical research in Portuguese banks. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 18(3), 486-505. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-11-2016-0112
[13] Chang, S.-J., Witteloostuijn, A. van, & Eden, L. (2010). From the editors: Common method variance in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(2), 178-184. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.88
[14] Chi, H., Vu, T., Nguyen, H. V., & Truong, T. H. (2023). How financial and non–financial rewards moderate the relationships between transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and job performance. Cogent Business and Management, 10(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2023.2173850
[15] Colquitt, J. A., Lepine, J. A., & Wesson, M. J. (2019). Organizational behavior: Improving performance and commitment in the workplace (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
[16] Erdurmazli, E. (2025). Transformational leadership and follower performance: Relational and motivational bases of leader behaviors. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 36(2), 129-154. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21532
[17] Fink, A. (2017). How to conduct surveys (A step-by-step guide) (6th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
[18] Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312
[19] George, E., & Zakkariya, K. A. (2018). Psychological empowerment and job satisfaction in the banking sector. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94259-9
[20] Greenleaf, R. K. (2013). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. Paulist Press.
[21] Griffin, R. W., Phillips, J. M., & Gully, S. M. (2020). Organizational behavior: Managing people and organizations (13th ed.). Cengage Learning, Inc.
[22] Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2022). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (3rd ed.). SAGE Publication, Inc.
[23] Hair Jr., J. F., Page, M., & Brunsveld, N. (2020). Essentials of business research methods (4th ed.). Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group).
[24] Hayat, A., Azeem, M., Nawaz, R., Humayon, A. A., & Ahmed, M. (2019). Mediating effect of human capital on organizational culture, teamwork, organizational development and organizational commitment. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies, 5(3), 1-9.
[25] Henseler, J., Dijkstra, T. K., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., Diamantopoulos, A., Straub, D. W., Ketchen, D. J., Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., & Calantone, R. J. (2014). Common beliefs and reality about PLS: Comments on Rönkkö and Evermann (2013). Organizational Research Methods, 17(2), 182-209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428114526928
[26] Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
[27] Hidayat, S. E., Rafiki, A., & Aldoseri, M. M. (2017). Application of leadership style in government organizations: A survey in the kingdom of Bahrain. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 10(4), 581-594. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMEFM-06-2015-0075
[28] Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511805851
[29] Istichomah, I., Andika, I. P. J., & Pesirahu, H. V. E. (2021). Social support affect nurses’ job satisfaction: A literature review. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 9(T4), 333-339. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2021.5883
[30] Jankelova, N., & Joniakova, Z. (2021). Communication skills and transformational leadership style of first-line nurse managers in relation to job satisfaction of nurses and moderators of this relationship. Healthcare, 9(3), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9030346
[31] Jehanzeb, H., Memon, M. A., Mirza, M. Z., & Muenjohn, N. (2025). Nexus between workplace spirituality, open innovation mindset and job embeddedness: The role of self-efficacy and mindfulness. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 13(1), 104-128. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-05-2024-0218
[32] Jeki, S., & Sulastri, S. (2019). The effect of human capital, motivation and job satisfaction on employee performance: A literature review. Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, 97, 788-795. https://doi.org/10.2991/piceeba-19.2019.86
[33] Kemenpan-RB. (2020). LAKIP Deputi Bidang SDM Aparatur Kemenpan-RB 2019. https://www.menpan.go.id/site/lakip-deputi-sdma/file/6360-lakip-deputi-bidang-sdm-aparatur-tahun-2019-revisi
[34] Khatatbeh, H., Al-Dwaikat, T., Olah, A., Onchonga, D., Hammoud, S., Amer, F., Premusz, V., & Pakai, A. (2021). The relationships between paediatric nurses’ social support, job satisfaction and patient adverse events. Nursing Open, 8(6), 3575-3582. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.907
[35] Kim, S. (2012). Does person‐organization fit matter in the public‐sector? Testing the mediating effect of person‐organization fit in the relationship between public service motivation and work attitudes. Public Administration Review, 72(6), 830-840. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2012.02572.x
[36] Kock, N. (2015). Common method bias in PLS-SEM: A full collinearity assessment approach. International Journal of E-Collaboration, 11(4), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijec.2015100101
[37] Liengaard, B. D., Sharma, P. N., Hult, G. T. M., Jensen, M. B., Sarstedt, M., Hair, J. F., & Ringle, C. M. (2020). Prediction: Coveted, yet forsaken? Introducing a cross-validated predictive modeling. Decision Sciences, 52(2), 362-392.
[38] Lussier, R. N. (2019). Management fundamentals: Concepts, applications, and skill development (8th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
[39] Memon, M. A., Thurasamy, R., Cheah, J. H., Ting, H., Chuah, F., & Cham, T. H. (2023). Addressing common method bias, operationalization, sampling, and data collection issues in quantitative research: Review and recommendations. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 7(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.47263/JASEM.7(2)01
[40] Mickson, M. K., & Anlesinya, A. (2020). Enhancing job satisfaction among local government servants in Ghana: The relative roles of diverse leadership behaviours. International Journal of Public Leadership, 16(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPL-03-2019-0007
[41] Mulyono, A. (2015). Pengembangan kapasitas aparatur sipil negara di daerah. JKMP (Jurnal Kebijakan Dan Manajemen Publik), 3(1), 17-34.
[42] Nguyen, N. P., Hang, N. T. T., Hiep, N., & Flynn, O. (2023). Does transformational leadership influence organisational culture and organisational performance: Empirical evidence from an emerging country. IIMB Management Review, 35(4), 382-392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iimb.2023.10.001
[43] Nguyen, P. N. D., & Le, D. N. T. (2023). Understanding organisational citizenship behaviour through organisational justice and its consequences among Vietnamese's universities employees. Emerging Science Journal, 7(Special issue 2), 93-110. https://doi.org/10.28991/ESJ-2023-SIED2-08
[44] Northouse, P. G. (2019). Leadership: Theory and practice (8th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
[45] Onuoha, U. D., & Yaya, J. A. (2019). Combined correlational effects of motivation, emotional intelligence and human capital development on job satisfaction of librarians in Nigerian public university libraries. Library Philosophy and Practice, 2751.
[46] Pahlevi, M. R., & Suhartanto, D. (2020). The integrated model of green loyalty: Evidence from eco-friendly plastic products. Journal of Cleaner Production, 257, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120844
[47] Badan Kepegawaian Negara. (2019). Peraturan Badan Kepegawaian Negara Nomor 8 Tahun 2019 tentang pedoman tata cara dan pelaksanaan pengukuran indeks profesionalitas aparatur sipil negara [Peraturan]. Badan Kepegawaian Negara. https://jdih.bkn.go.id/common/dokumen/2019peraturanlembagapemerintahnonkementerian8-29.pdf
[48] Kementerian Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara dan Reformasi Birokrasi. (2020). Peraturan Menteri Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara dan Reformasi Birokrasi Republik Indonesia Nomor 25 Tahun 2020 tentang road map reformasi birokrasi 2020-2024 [Peraturan Menteri]. https://berkas.dpr.go.id/setjen/dokumen/reformasi-birokrasi-Regulasi-PERATURAN-MENTERI-PENDAYAGUNAAN-APARATUR-NEGARA-DAN-REFORMASI-BIROKRASI-REPUBLIK-INDONESIA-1761189828.pdf
[49] Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Bommer, W. H. (1996). Transformational leader behaviors and substitutes for leadership as determinants of employee satisfaction, commitment, trust, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Management, 22(2), 259-298. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639602200204
[50] Prikshat, V., Rajesh, J. I., & Rajaguru, R. (2021). The growth satisfaction in jobs among hospitality employees: The role of transformational leadership, interpersonal communication satisfaction and trust. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, 20(1), 48-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332845.2020.1821427
[51] Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Mitchell, R., & Gudergan, S. P. (2020). Partial least squares structural equation modeling in HRM research. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 31(12), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1416655
[52] Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2023). Research methods for business students (9th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
[53] Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in human capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1-17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1818907
[54] Sharma, P. N., Liengaard, B. D., Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2023). Predictive model assessment and selection in composite-based modeling using PLS-SEM: Extensions and guidelines for using CVPAT. European Journal of Marketing, 57(6), 1662-1677. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-08-2020-0636
[55] Shmueli, G., Sarstedt, M., Hair, J. F., Cheah, J. H., Ting, H., Vaithilingam, S., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). Predictive model assessment in PLS-SEM: Guidelines for using PLSpredict. European Journal of Marketing, 53(11), 2322-2347. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-02-2019-0189
[56] Tenenhaus, M., Vinzi, V. E., Chatelin, Y. M., & Lauro, C. (2005). PLS path modeling. Computational Statistics and Data Analysis, 48(1), 159-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2004.03.005
[57] Tintore, M. (2019). Introducing a model of transformational prosocial leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 13(3), 15-34. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21664
[58] Tran, Y. T., & Hoang, T. C. (2024). Transformational leadership and public employee performance: The mediating roles of employee participation and public service motivation. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 90(4), 793-809. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208523241230439
[59] Ulfa, M., Hamid, N., & Rasyid, W. (2020). The influence of organizational culture, leadership and motivation through job satisfaction on employee performance at Hasanuddin University Hospital. Hasanuddin Journal of Business Strategy, 2(1), 1-14.
[60] Vandenabeele, W. (2009). The mediating effect of job satisfaction and organizational commitment on self-reported performance: More robust evidence of the PSM—performance relationship. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 75(1), 11-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852308099504
[61] Vidotto, J. D. F., Ferenhof, H. A., Selig, P. M., & Bastos, R. C. (2017). A human capital measurement scale. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 18(2), 316-329. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-08-2016-0085
[62] Vitell, S. J., & Davis, D. L. (1990). The relationship between ethics and job satisfaction: An empirical investigation. Journal of Business Ethics, 9, 489-494. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00382842
[63] Wetzels, M., Odekerken-Schroder, G., & Van-Oppen, C. (2009). Using PLS path modeling for assessing hierarchical construct models: Guidelines and empirical illustration. MIS Quarterly, 33(1), 177-196. https://doi.org/10.2307/20650284
[64] Wibisana, B. H. (2020). Laporan Kinerja Badan Kepegawaian Negara 2019. Badan Kepegawaian Negara. https://www.bkn.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Laporan-Kinerja-Badan-Kepegawaian-Negara-2019.pdf
[65] Zhao, Y., Zhang, Z., Lu, Y., & Ding, M. (2023). Standing in others' shoes: The role of leader prosocial motivation in facilitating employee creativity. Creativity and Innovation Management, 32(1), 58-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12542